In recent years, Europe has witnessed the rise of an “illiberal challenge,” where several countries have experienced shifts away from liberal democratic principles toward more authoritarian, nationalist, and populist policies. The illiberal turn has questioned the political foundations of the European Union (EU) and the post-World War II European order, which had prioritized democracy, human rights, the rule of law, and open markets. Understanding the causes, impact, and future prospects of this illiberal wave is essential to addressing the current political landscape in Europe.
What is Illiberalism?
Illiberalism refers to a form of governance or political movement that undermines liberal democratic norms, while still operating within a nominally democratic framework. While democratic institutions may still exist, such as elections and parliaments, illiberal regimes often erode checks and balances, reduce the independence of the judiciary, and suppress media freedoms and civil liberties. Illiberalism often coincides with nationalist and populist rhetoric, where leaders claim to defend the “real” people against elites, minorities, or external threats.
The term “illiberal democracy” was popularized by Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán in 2014, when he expressed his desire to build a system that diverges from traditional Western liberal democracy. Since then, countries like Hungary and Poland have often been cited as key examples of illiberalism in Europe.
Causes of the Illiberal Challenge in Europe
There are multiple factors behind the rise of illiberalism in Europe, reflecting both domestic and international dynamics.
Economic Discontent: Economic grievances have played a significant role in the rise of illiberal movements across Europe. The 2008 financial crisis, followed by the European debt crisis, exposed deep economic inequalities within many European countries. Austerity measures, rising unemployment, and stagnant wages left large segments of the population feeling alienated and left behind by the economic and political establishment.Countries in Eastern Europe, such as Hungary and Poland, have experienced frustration with the slow pace of economic development after the transition from communism to free markets in the 1990s. While membership in the European Union brought economic benefits, many felt that economic globalization disproportionately benefited urban elites, while rural areas and working-class communities were left to struggle. This economic disillusionment has been exploited by illiberal leaders, who promise to protect national interests and bring back jobs, often through nationalist and protectionist policies.
Immigration and Cultural Anxiety: The European migration crisis of 2015–2016, during which more than a million refugees and migrants from the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia entered Europe, created widespread anxiety about cultural identity, security, and social cohesion. Illiberal leaders have capitalized on this fear by framing immigration as an existential threat to European culture and values. For example, Hungary’s Viktor Orbán built a physical barrier along Hungary’s border to prevent the influx of migrants, framing himself as the defender of Christian Europe against the perceived Muslim invasion. Similarly, Poland’s Law and Justice Party (PiS) has adopted a hardline stance on immigration, arguing that Muslim refugees threaten the country’s Catholic identity. These anxieties, often exacerbated by far-right media and online platforms, have helped fuel nationalist and xenophobic rhetoric, contributing to the illiberal shift in several European countries.
Populism and Political Disillusionment: The rise of populism has been central to the illiberal challenge in Europe. Populist leaders appeal to people’s frustrations with established political institutions, framing themselves as outsiders who can speak for the “common people” against corrupt elites. Populism tends to prioritize majority rule over liberal democratic principles, such as protecting minority rights and maintaining the rule of law.In Poland, the ruling Law and Justice Party (PiS), led by Jarosław Kaczyński, has used populist rhetoric to consolidate power, arguing that PiS represents the “true” Polish people and that liberal institutions like the courts are out of touch with national interests. Similarly, Italy’s Matteo Salvini, leader of the Lega Nord party, has used populist rhetoric to mobilize voters against the European Union and migrants. This populist surge has deepened political polarization, undermining liberal norms that traditionally encourage compromise and respect for democratic institutions.
Sovereignty and Nationalism: The illiberal challenge is also driven by growing disillusionment with supranational institutions, particularly the European Union. Illiberal leaders argue that European integration has eroded national sovereignty, giving too much power to unelected bureaucrats in Brussels at the expense of national interests. This rhetoric resonates particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, where memories of foreign domination under Soviet rule are still vivid.In Hungary and Poland, leaders have framed their illiberal policies as a defense of national sovereignty against the imposition of liberal values from the EU. They argue that the EU’s promotion of liberal democracy, gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and multiculturalism is incompatible with their countries’ traditional values. This defense of “illiberal democracy” is often accompanied by nationalist rhetoric that emphasizes historical grievances and a sense of victimhood at the hands of foreign powers.
Impact of the Illiberal Challenge
The illiberal challenge has far-reaching consequences for Europe, both at the national level and for the European project as a whole.
Erosion of Democratic Norms: One of the most alarming impacts of the illiberal challenge is the erosion of democratic norms in countries like Hungary and Poland. In Hungary, the Orbán government has systematically undermined the independence of the judiciary, restricted media freedoms, and passed laws that limit the activities of civil society organizations. In Poland, the PiS government has enacted reforms that weaken judicial independence and restrict press freedoms, leading to concerns that Poland is sliding towards authoritarianism.The dismantling of democratic checks and balances in these countries has raised concerns about the future of democracy in Europe. The European Union, which is built on the principles of liberal democracy, has struggled to respond effectively to these developments, as punitive measures such as Article 7 sanctions require unanimous support from EU member states.
Strain on EU Unity: The rise of illiberalism in Europe has also strained EU unity. The European Union was founded on a shared commitment to democratic values, human rights, and the rule of law. However, the illiberal policies of Hungary, Poland, and other countries challenge these core principles, creating tensions within the bloc.The European Union has launched multiple infringement procedures against Hungary and Poland, accusing them of violating EU law and democratic standards. However, these efforts have been hampered by the EU’s consensus-based decision-making process, where illiberal governments often support each other to block sanctions. The illiberal challenge has also contributed to broader divisions within the EU, particularly between Western European countries, which tend to prioritize liberal values, and Central and Eastern European countries, which have expressed concerns about the imposition of liberal norms by Brussels.
Rise of Illiberal Movements Across Europe: The illiberal challenge is not limited to Hungary and Poland. Across Europe, illiberal and far-right movements have gained traction, from Marine Le Pen’s National Rally in France to AfD (Alternative for Germany) in Germany. In Italy, Matteo Salvini’s Lega Nord and Giorgia Meloni’s Brothers of Italy have surged in popularity, while countries like Austria and Slovenia have also seen illiberal movements emerge.This trend reflects a broader shift toward populist and nationalist politics in Europe, where dissatisfaction with globalization, immigration, and supranational governance fuels support for parties that reject liberal norms in favor of authoritarian or nationalist policies.
Future Prospects and Solutions
Addressing the illiberal challenge in Europe will require a multi-faceted approach that addresses the root causes of illiberalism while reinforcing democratic values.
Economic Reforms and Social Equity: Addressing economic grievances that fuel illiberalism will be crucial. Governments need to implement policies that reduce inequality and provide opportunities for marginalized communities. Investing in job creation, education, and social welfare programs can help alleviate economic discontent and restore faith in democratic governance.
Strengthening EU Mechanisms: The European Union must find ways to strengthen its mechanisms for defending democracy and the rule of law. Reforming decision-making processes, such as moving away from unanimity in Article 7 proceedings, could enable the EU to take more decisive action against illiberal governments.
Fostering Civic Engagement: Civil society organizations, media outlets, and grassroots movements play a critical role in defending democratic values. Governments and international organizations should support independent media, NGOs, and educational programs that promote democratic engagement and civic education, helping to counter illiberal rhetoric.
Promoting Dialogue and Unity: Finally, fostering dialogue between different political factions and social groups can help reduce polarization. Encouraging cross-party cooperation and dialogue between liberal and illiberal leaders can help identify common ground and reduce the risk of further fragmentation within Europe.
To conclude, the illiberal challenge in Europe represents a significant threat to the liberal democratic order that has defined the continent since the end of World War II. The rise of illiberalism, driven by economic discontent, cultural anxiety, populism, and nationalism, has eroded democratic norms and strained EU unity. Addressing this challenge will require a concerted effort to address the root causes of illiberalism, strengthen democratic institutions, and promote dialogue and unity within Europe. Only through such efforts can Europe confront the illiberal wave and reaffirm its commitment to liberal democracy.
