The issue of human trafficking is not a new phenomenon in Southeast Asia. The widespread practice of human trafficking in the region has created an urgency for regional governments to cooperate in combating this issue. According to the International Organisation for Migration, since 2002 there have been 10,045 people trafficked throughout Southeast Asia, and 24,707 ASEAN citizens have been victims of human trafficking around the world (Martinus & Aridati, 2024). The high level of human trafficking occurring in Southeast Asia has become an international spotlight. Human trafficking is no longer a domestic issue that can only be resolved by one country. However, there need to be collective efforts in combating transnational crimes. Security cooperation in the region is crucial to solving the problem of human trafficking, especially in Southeast Asia.
Exploited and trafficked, the high rate of human trafficking in Southeast Asia
Human trafficking is a transnational organised crime (TOC) that poses a security challenge in Southeast Asia. Most victims of human trafficking are women and children. Human trafficking is also referred to as ‘modern slavery’ because victims are often used as forced labour, sexually exploited, forced into marriage, and become victims of an illegal human organ trafficking (ILO, Walk Free & IOM., 2022). The Southeast Asian region is a major source of human trafficking. This can occur due to domestic conditions that make it easy for victims to get trapped in human trafficking crimes. Low economic levels, inter-ethnic conflicts, low education, domestic political conditions, and weak border controls among countries are also the reasons why human trafficking cases are very high in the Southeast Asian region (Perry K.M and Mc. Ewing. L (2013) in Soesilowati, 2020).
According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNOD), the destination countries for human trafficking in Southeast Asia are Thailand and Malaysia with most victims coming from neighbouring countries such as Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar and Laos (Caballero-Anthony, 2018). This indicates that victims of human trafficking are mostly trafficked in the same region. Weak border controls between countries make it easier for transnational crime syndicates to organise their crimes. Women are the most common victims of human trafficking. According to UN Women, every year 225,000 women and children are trafficked in Southeast Asia. Women and children victims are usually exploited for sexual purposes. Countries such as Cambodia and Thailand are the major suppliers of pornographic content. Online pornography is a profitable business that generates approximately $3-$20 billion in profits each year (Caballero-Anthony, 2018). Besides being sexually exploited, trafficked women and children are often used for forced labour and become victims of illegal organ trafficking. Male victims are usually exploited for forced labour with low wages and no labour protection. Some victims of human trafficking are also forced to commit online crimes. Consequently, people all over the world are becoming victims of organised criminal groups in Southeast Asia (UNODC, 2024). However, male victims are also vulnerable to sexual exploitation although not as many as women and children. Gender-based discrimination makes women more exploited as prostitutes labour. For example, in Cambodia, casual labourers are paid only $80 a month, and therefore becoming a sex worker is more profitable for them. However, the lack of knowledge of their rights ultimately boomerangs for these workers who might face torture, abuse, disease transmission and slavery (Hugot, 2024).
Who are the most vulnerable targets of human trafficking?
Human trafficking is referred to as modern slavery as a result of the many human rights violations that occur. Victims of human trafficking are usually from the most vulnerable population—the less educated and low-income groups. This case is getting worse due to pandemics and endemics. The global economic collapse because of the pandemic has led to an increase in human trafficking cases. Victims with low education levels and poor economic conditions are easily persuaded by the motive to get a better job abroad. Furthermore, natural disasters and domestic conflicts can also increase the risk of human trafficking. The region in Southeast Asia is prone to natural disasters. According to a report by the UN Environment Programme, in times of disaster, women also experience higher vulnerability to human trafficking. Losing their jobs and losing their families makes it very difficult for these women to survive, and the criminals of organized crime can easily trap these women for trafficking, such as in the Philippines. In addition, some Southeast Asian countries are still experiencing internal conflicts. As in Myanmar, refugees trying to escape from their home country are easily targeted for human trafficking by these criminal syndicates (Frada, 2024).
ASEAN’s role as a regional organization to combat human trafficking
ASEAN, as a regional organization, has committed to addressing human trafficking in the region. ASEAN has a plan of action by establishing the ASEAN Convention Against Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (ACTIP), in 2015. Indonesia is one of the six countries that signed this agreement. However, Indonesia ratified the treaty only two years later, as stated in Law No. 12/2017. Despite this, Indonesia has shown its commitment to combating human trafficking for a long time. Indonesia has legislation No. 21/2007 on the Eradication of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons (Tindak Pidana Perdagangan Orang/UU TTPO) (Puspitasari & Iqbal, 2023). The Trafficking in Persons Act (TPPO) is in line with the ACTIP to break the cycle of trafficking in persons, which has been increasing.
Challenges facing ASEAN in combating human trafficking
When dealing with an issue, ASEAN prefers to use ASEAN’s own way known as the ASEAN WAY. This is partly a result of the pattern of interaction between countries in ASEAN that prioritizes peaceful means or dialogue between countries so that in some ASEAN policies, it is less binding. Some of the norms that exist within ASEAN become obstacles in the effective implementation of policies made by ASEAN to combat human trafficking. ASEAN is a collaboration of sovereign states, not a supranational organization like the European Union that has binding authority on its policies. Therefore, in implementing the ACTIP, there are obstacles regarding the lack of commitment of ASEAN member states to the agreed agreement (Subono & Kosandi, 2019).
ASEAN has a principle of non-intervention that makes compliance and participation of member states dependent on the willingness of each country that cannot be forced by other countries. Collaboration between governments to investigate, prosecute, share information, and protect victims is minimal. Most countries tend to focus on national action rather than strengthening cooperation and coordination between ASEAN countries. Therefore, the many regional agreements made by ASEAN have not been able to combat human trafficking in the region. The effectiveness of regional agreements depends on their implementation in their respective countries.
Many countries, such as Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, and Malaysia, are centers of human trafficking in ASEAN. However, these countries and ASEAN have yet to eradicate this organized transnational crime syndicate. According to the US State Department, some countries in ASEAN are still classified as not meeting TVPA (Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000) standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance (Subono & Kosandi, 2019). Significant efforts have been made to create several national and regional policies that focus on the issue of human trafficking. However, ASEAN countries are still unable to address other factors that are crucial to the practice of human trafficking. For example, in domestic politics, ASEAN countries still face corruption cases that make it easier for illegal immigrants to cross a country. The lack of border control among countries also contributes to the convenience of human trafficking.
Conclusion
The high rate of transnational crime in Southeast Asia shows that there is a close relationship between domestic security and regional security. To resolve internal security issues, the ASEAN countries need to strengthen their regional cooperation. Human trafficking is one of the essential issues to be discussed. ASEAN, as a regional organization in the Southeast Asian region, has made many collaborations to eradicate the practice of human trafficking. Although ASEAN member states are aware that the issue of human trafficking is a threat to mutual security. However, the awareness of the importance of coordination between countries to eradicate this case is still not sufficiently maximized. This is because some ASEAN norms are not binding on member states. Therefore, the effectiveness of ASEAN’s policy implementation is not enough to tackle human trafficking in the region. ASEAN countries should be able to get rid of their ‘egoism’ and entrust cooperation between countries to tackle this case. Thus, the agreements made by ASEAN in tackling human trafficking can be effective.
