The rapid growth of digital technologies has transformed how governments interact with their citizens, providing enhanced connectivity and granting states new ways to exert control. In Russia, the government has increasingly leveraged these technologies as a tool of suppression, particularly as the political climate becomes more fragile. The Kremlin’s pursuit of “sovereignty” over its digital infrastructure reflects a broader goal to assert dominance over its online space, reduce reliance on foreign platforms, and strengthen its control. This shift, especially amidst the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, has led to heightened restrictions on online expression, increased surveillance, and the passage of strict laws aimed at curbing dissent. This paper delves into Russia’s legal and technical strategies for tightening its grip on the digital landscape.
Although Russia’s approach to cyber control began in the early 2010s, the 2022 invasion of Ukraine acted as a catalyst, accelerating these efforts. Following the large-scale protests in 2011, which were heavily facilitated by social media, the Kremlin recognized the risks posed by unregulated digital spaces. In response, the state developed a robust framework to exert greater control over the digital domain. Over the last decade, this framework has grown to include more restrictive laws, advanced surveillance capabilities, and new regulatory mechanisms, aligning with a global trend toward “cyber sovereignty.” This system has enabled the Russian government to more efficiently monitor, censor, and regulate digital communications, particularly during politically volatile times like the Ukraine war.
One of the key milestones in Russia’s push for control over its digital environment was the introduction of the Sovereign Internet Law in 2019. This legislation allows the government to reroute internet traffic within the country through state-controlled channels, effectively creating a structure that can isolate Russia’s online space from the global web if deemed necessary. This “firewall” grants the government the power to block or slow access to foreign information sources deemed threatening. It represents a substantial move towards a more restricted online environment, where dissent can be more easily suppressed and the state’s interests protected through information control.
Prior to this, the Yarovaya Law of 2016 had already strengthened state control over online spaces. It required telecom providers to store user data for up to three years and allowed security agencies to access this information. The law also required encryption services to provide decryption keys to the government. This comprehensive data collection system enabled the Russian government to enhance its surveillance operations, aided by artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning technologies, which helped track political dissent more effectively. These legal and technological advancements have empowered the government to identify and neutralize opposition movements before they could gain traction.
In addition, the Russian government introduced a “fake news” law in 2022, criminalizing the dissemination of information that contradicts the state’s official stance on the Ukraine war. Those found guilty of violating this law face harsh penalties, including prison sentences of up to 15 years. The law is enforced through automated systems that rapidly detect and remove content that goes against official narratives. This move is part of a broader effort to stifle independent media and silence critical voices, illustrating the state’s commitment to maintaining a highly controlled information ecosystem.
To enforce its repressive measures, Russia uses a variety of tools, including censorship, extensive surveillance, and disinformation campaigns. Roskomnadzor, the country’s media and telecommunications watchdog, plays a central role in this system. The agency manages a blacklist of websites that challenge Kremlin-approved narratives and uses advanced surveillance technologies like Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) to monitor and block politically sensitive content. This commitment to controlling information flows is particularly evident during periods of political or military conflict.
Another crucial component of Russia’s surveillance apparatus is the System for Operative Investigative Activities (SORM). This longstanding surveillance system has been updated in recent years with AI-powered tools such as facial recognition and advanced data analytics, allowing for more precise monitoring of individuals’ online behaviors. Moreover, the government has integrated predictive policing techniques into its strategy, enabling authorities to preemptively identify and suppress dissent before it escalates.
Disinformation also plays a key role in Russia’s strategy for controlling its digital space. The state funds extensive campaigns that flood digital platforms with pro-Kremlin content, shaping public opinion and weakening opposition movements. By employing social network analysis, the government tracks how information spreads, identifying influential figures and manipulating discourse both domestically and internationally. This tactic has been particularly effective during the Ukraine conflict, where shaping public perception has been a critical strategic objective.
Another emerging tactic is the use of localized internet shutdowns during protests or periods of political unrest. While a full-scale national shutdown has not been deployed, local disruptions in cities such as Moscow and St. Petersburg have been used to hinder the coordination of protests. By controlling key internet exchange points (IXPs), the government is able to disrupt communication among activists, undermining their ability to organize and mobilize.
Since its founding in 2008, Roskomnadzor has seen its role in enforcing censorship and surveillance expand significantly. The agency, working closely with Russian security services, monitors and removes online content that contradicts state narratives, particularly during the Ukraine conflict. This aggressive approach to censorship reflects the government’s determination to eliminate dissent in the digital space and maintain strict control over public discourse.
Despite these extensive efforts, Russia faces challenges in fully achieving digital sovereignty. The country continues to rely on Western technologies and platforms, complicating its ambitions to build a self-reliant digital ecosystem. While domestic alternatives such as VKontakte and Yandex are available, Russia’s digital infrastructure remains deeply intertwined with global supply chains. This dependence on foreign technology limits the government’s ability to fully control its digital domain.
The increasing restrictions on online spaces in Russia have profound implications for freedom of expression. Internally, the suppression of independent media and the pervasive surveillance of online activity severely limit citizens’ ability to engage in open dialogue or express dissent. According to a 2024 Freedom House report, Russia’s internet freedom score reached an all-time low, reflecting the state’s intensified efforts to criminalize speech, enforce censorship, and implement mass surveillance.
Internationally, Russia’s model of cyber control has raised concerns about the growing trend of “cyber authoritarianism.” As more countries adopt similar strategies, the global internet could become increasingly fragmented, restricting access to diverse perspectives and threatening the open and free nature of the web. The growing sophistication of AI, DPI, and other surveillance technologies suggests that the fight for control over information will likely intensify, with significant consequences for global internet governance and individual freedoms.
In conclusion, Russia’s tactics for controlling its digital domain have become increasingly sophisticated and far-reaching, especially since the invasion of Ukraine. Through a combination of legal frameworks, surveillance, and censorship, the state has sought to dominate the flow of information and suppress dissent. However, Russia’s reliance on foreign technologies and the growing resistance within the country complicate its efforts to achieve full digital sovereignty. The future of internet freedom, both within Russia and globally, remains uncertain.
