An alternative approach of development stemming from the cosmo-visions of the Quechua peoples of the Andes’s sumak kawsay, the Aymara of Bolivia’s suma qamana, the Shuar people of Ecuador’s shiir waras, Guarani of Bolivia’s nandereko, and the Mapuche of Chile and Argentina—better known for its Spanish name Buen vivir, is a community-centric, ecologically-balanced, and culturally-sensitive social philosophy that critiques Western models of development that emphasizes materialism and consumption.[i] In English, it is loosely translated as “good living” but the philosophy itself is also influenced by feminist and environmentalist critiques of capitalism. The characteristics of Buen vivir centers around a sense of collectiveness; harmony between people and harmony between man and nature where a good life is achieved when there is a balance between both.[ii] It emphasizes on the rights of communities—the Andean conception of community includes the social and natural world, contrary to the Western social world that excludes the citizenship of non-human things—above the individual; a stark difference from capitalism’s cry for individual rights.[iii] Hence, Buen vivir views that nature has a right similar to that of people, and this concept differs radically from the modern economic perspective where there is dualism that separates nature from people; nature is seen as a resource to be extracted, exploited, and destroyed and turn into profit.[iv]
The idea first developed in South America during the early 2000s as a response to concerns on South American countries depleting natural resources.[v] The tendency to adopt neo-developmentalism policies to support social welfare programs created a condition for extraction. Noting the history of authoritarian rule in the 1960s-1970s, resistance was led by indigenous and left-wing movements and when democratization appeared in late 1970s to early 1980s, the mestizos dominated political parties that represented corporate interest. Several South American states relied on the US, World Bank, and IMF for help in economic development which drove the implementation of neoliberal policies that was dependent on extractive exports.[vi] Indigenous populations did not feel represented in these economic policies that sustains unequal exchange, as depicted in the Dependency Theory; South American states as the periphery or semi-periphery are trapped in a continuous cycle where their natural resources are extracted and exported as raw materials to core countries who processes these materials into goods sold in foreign markets or exported back into their own markets. This creates a situation where South American states continuously produce low-value goods. The exchange drove climate change and the destruction of the Amazon region all the while appropriating policies of domination like Mexico’s Maquiladoras. Furthermore, this practice puts indigenous communities out of the economy, which does not reflect their way of life. This predicament inspired South Americans to look back into their ancestral roots, where indigenous communities have survived for centuries living peacefully alongside nature by putting high value on preserving nature.[vii]
The economic implication of Buen vivir also meant a paradigm shift in the way resources are viewed and alternative consumption patterns. Buen vivir views humans as stewards of the earth—this means humans do not own the earth which differs from the idea of natural capital. Buen vivir stresses on not putting a price on nature and human capital because capital is interchangeable between people, whilst environmental destruction and human deprivation of welfare are not interchangeable.[viii] Since Buen vivir puts the community of individuals as the subject of wellbeing instead of just the individual itself, it cannot measure national wellbeing using the Fairfax-Lateral Economics Wellbeing Index. It criticizes commodification and strives for social and ecological commons for a bio-civilized future.[ix] In affecting consumption patterns, Buen vivir advocates for a decrease of consumption both by paying “real environmental and social costs” and championing de-growth strategies. For example, items at retail prices tend to not incorporate costs of transnationalism production; un-recyclable materials like plastic may be sourced from China or natural resources like metals from Peru with laborers from Mexico are combined to create retail products that does not reflect the social and environmental costs of cheap labor, mining, or transport that contributes to climate change. Moreover, de-growth strategies adopt the logic that even if certain products possess less environmental damage values but are sold at high quantities then it is equivalent to selling products with no environmental damage values. Hence, a significant change in the capitalist modes of production is needed, particularly in agriculture where small-scale production is deemed more sustainable, reflects local culture, and meets local demands without overproducing. In this sense, agriculture is not focused on gaining high global export value, but rather to meet domestic demands and regional markets, which means that production requires lower levels of raw materials because extraction is done to only meet regional demands.[x]
Buen vivir is a decolonial stance enshrined in biocentric ideals, democracy, and balanced life.[xi] It is a construction of systemic knowledge based on the communion of humans and nature as interrelated beings.[xii] Buen vivir gained political trajectory in the early 2000s thanks to the discontent of neoliberal reforms that continued to marginalized indigenous populations in Ecuador and Bolivia, spurring progressive political movements of the mestizo left-wing working-class and indigenous movements. This gave birth to powerful coalitions of mestizo and indigenous peoples and political leaders who were able to reconcile them. It should be noted that both Andean nations have a large indigenous population—Bolivia at 71% and Ecuador at 43%.[xiii] Bolivia’s 2006 president, Evo Morales, was an indigenous Aymara decent and had a history for campaigning indigenous coca in the 1990s and founded the Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) which protested neoliberal policies of water and gas privatization. MAS’s success in dealing with populist agendas of land reform by focusing on unemployment and poverty brought Morales into power by gaining indigenous and poor mestizo groups support. Meanwhile, Rafael Correa, a middle-class mestizo intellectual became Ecuador’s 2007 president by adopting the Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas de Ecuador (CONAIE)’s proposal for a constitution that recognized indigenous rights. Once in power, both presidents sought to pursue indigenous causes like reforming the constitution with Buen vivir philosophies and creating constituents with large indigenous representation.[xiv]
Ecuador’s constitution has recognized the Rights of Nature in 2008 and its Preamble states, “We decided to construct a new form of citizen co-existence, in diversity and harmony with nature, to reach ‘el buen vivir, el sumac kawsay’,”.[xv] Buen vivir has also been incorporated in Ecuador’s National Plan for Good Living 2009-2013 as seen in principles regarding quality of life to encompass spiritual life, the right to live and be loved, and the right to contemplate. Furthermore, the plan included a development strategy of ‘biopolis’ which is a society based on eco-tourism, agro-ecology, and ‘bio-knowledge’ described in four stages; (1) import substitution selection, (2) clean energy usage to enhance energy surplus, (3) export substitution through diversification, and (4) implementing bio-service technologies.[xvi] Bolivia has also incorporated Buen vivir into its constitution in 2009 as seen in its Mother Nature Law which states that the balance of ecosystems and local communities cannot be jeopardized by mega-infrastructure and development projects.[xvii] However, there are several differences regarding the incorporation of the concept from both constitutions. In Ecuador, Buen Vivir is a separate set of rights—the rights of Pachamama or the Rights of Nature. Meanwhile, in Bolivia, Buen vivir is part of the third-generation human rights because it is interpreted as a principle of gender equality, social equality, and human dignity.[xviii] Hence, it is arguable that Buen vivir has a firmer legal framework in Ecuador than in Bolivia.
The political transition of adopting Buen vivir was also supported by foreign agencies like the Pachamama Alliance in the US and the Community Environmental Legal Defense Fund, particularly for Ecuador which also conducted exchanges with Bolivia.[xix] But despite its adoption, there are several challenges in transitioning the social philosophy into political policies. Both Ecuadorian and Bolivian governments found difficulties to reconcile Buen vivir’s goals and create meaningful social change amidst financial strains and pressure from corporations. The Yasuni ITT Initiative case in Ecuador is an example. Oil was found in the ITT area of the Yasuni National Park, home to indigenous peoples and possessing a great biodiversity. Ecuador planned to conserve the oil in 2007 if sufficient international funds were met.[xx] When the funds did not arrive, the plan to conserve the oil failed in 2013 and Correa also renegotiated oil contracts that increased state profits from 55% to 99%. Mining and agribusiness also increased under Correa, with raw material exports increasing to 83% in 2014. Similarly, Bolivia’s exports under Morales grew six-fold from $2.2 billion to $12.9 billion. This means both presidents still relied on traditional development strategies of exploitation to fund social programs to reduce poverty, which was achieved—poverty in Ecuador decreased from 37.6% to 22.5% between 2006-2014 whilst indigenous populations living in poverty in Bolivia decreased from 38% to 17% which means around 2 million people escaped extreme poverty. Inequality in Bolivia was also reduced with Bolivia’s richest earning 38 times more than the average; compared to the previous 128 times more. [xxi]
In conclusion, Buen vivir is a social philosophy that demands the restructuring of economies and the formation of a different relationship with nature. It is an effort to re-politicize sustainability, but should not be viewed as strict blueprint for change but rather an alternative future rooted in ancestral traditions of the past. As an eco-cultural practice, it raises awareness on local solidarities that advocate for collaborative economies and consumption based on sharing and caring resources that allows natural regeneration. As a social-political practice, it emphasizes the need to take back the economy by moving away from extractive economic models by valuing communities and environments in order to value oneself. Ultimately, Buen vivir is a Global South stance against Western categorization of development being synonymous with industrialization; because in Andean ontology, there is no concept of underdevelopment.
[i] C. Mercado, ‘Buen Vivir: A New Era of Great Social Change,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring),25 December 2017, <https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[ii] O. Balch, ‘Buen vivir: The social philosophy inspiring movements in South America,’ The Guardian (daring),4 February 2013, <https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[iii] O. Balch, ‘Buen vivir: The social philosophy inspiring movements in South America,’ The Guardian (daring),4 February 2013, <https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[iv] S. Beltran, ‘Theory: Buen Vivir,’ This Changes Everything (daring),<https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[v] C. Mercado, ‘Buen Vivir: A New Era of Great Social Change,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring),25 December 2017, <https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[vi] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[vii] C. Mercado, ‘Buen Vivir: A New Era of Great Social Change,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring),25 December 2017, <https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[viii] O. Balch, ‘Buen vivir: The social philosophy inspiring movements in South America,’ The Guardian (daring),4 February 2013, <https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[ix] J. F. Salazar, ‘Buen vivir: South America’s thinking of the future we want,’ The Conversation (daring), 24 July 2015, <https://theconversation.com/buen-vivir-south-americas-rethinking-of-the-future-we-want-44507>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[x] O. Balch, ‘Buen vivir: The social philosophy inspiring movements in South America,’ The Guardian (daring), 4 February 2013, <https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xi] J. F. Salazar, ‘Buen vivir: South America’s thinking of the future we want,’ The Conversation (daring), 24 July 2015, <https://theconversation.com/buen-vivir-south-americas-rethinking-of-the-future-we-want-44507>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xii] J. F. Salazar, ‘Buen vivir: South America’s thinking of the future we want,’ The Conversation (daring), 24 July 2015, <https://theconversation.com/buen-vivir-south-americas-rethinking-of-the-future-we-want-44507>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xiii] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xiv] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xv] J. F. Salazar, ‘Buen vivir: South America’s thinking of the future we want,’ The Conversation (daring), 24 July 2015, <https://theconversation.com/buen-vivir-south-americas-rethinking-of-the-future-we-want-44507>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xvi] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xvii] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xviii] ‘Sumak Kawsay: Ancient Teachings of Indigenous People,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring), <https://www.pachamama.org/sumak-kawsay?_ga=2.166346110.1977443703.1624466566-193665649.1624466566>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xix] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xx] C. Mercado, ‘Buen Vivir: A New Era of Great Social Change,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring),25 December 2017, <https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
[xxi] ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
Bibliography
End notes no.1, 5, 7, 20 are sourced from C. Mercado, ‘Buen Vivir: A New Era of Great Social Change,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring),25 December 2017, <https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
End notes no.2, 3, 8, 10 are sourced from O. Balch, ‘Buen vivir: The social philosophy inspiring movements in South America,’ The Guardian (daring),4 February 2013, <https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
End notes no.4 is sourced from S. Beltran, ‘Theory: Buen Vivir,’ This Changes Everything (daring),<https://solutions.thischangeseverything.org/module/buen-vivir>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
End notes no.6, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, is sourced from ‘Buen vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador,’ Rapid Transition Alliance (daring), 2 December 2018, <https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
End notes no.9, 11, 12, 15 are sourced from J. F. Salazar, ‘Buen vivir: South America’s thinking of the future we want,’ The Conversation (daring), 24 July 2015, <https://theconversation.com/buen-vivir-south-americas-rethinking-of-the-future-we-want-44507>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
End notes no.18 is sourced from ‘Sumak Kawsay: Ancient Teachings of Indigenous People,’ Pachamama Alliance (daring), <https://www.pachamama.org/sumak-kawsay?_ga=2.166346110.1977443703.1624466566-193665649.1624466566>, diakses pada 23 June 2021
